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<\/figure>\n<\/div>\n\n\nHighlights<\/h2>\n\n\n\n\n- Dopamine is a chemical messenger that forms an integral part of the central nervous system. Dopamine pathways control vital functions such as cognition, memory, locomotion and sleep<\/em>, <\/em><\/li>\n\n\n\n
- New studies are emerging linking dopamine activity to blood glucose levels. A key element in this relationship is insulin<\/em>,<\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Foods rich in fat and sugar can override the brain\u2019s reward system and inhibit appetite-suppressing hormones. This causes individuals to eat more and can lead to obesity, metabolic syndrome and, eventually, diabetes.<\/em> <\/li>\n<\/ul>\n\n\n\n
Recent studies have shown a promising link between nervous system functioning and blood sugar. We present the latest findings to you here; first, the basics of dopamine, followed by its interaction with serum glucose. <\/p>\n\n\n\n
What is dopamine?<\/h2>\n\n\n\n
Dopamine is a neurotransmitter, or chemical messenger, responsible for several key functions in the central nervous system. Conventionally, it is known as the \u2018feel-good\u2019 or \u2018pleasure\u2019 chemical even though it does not produce <\/em>pleasure. Instead, dopamine connects feelings of pleasure, gratification and reward with certain behaviours by controlling the brain\u2019s reward centres and pathways.<\/p>\n\n\n\nDopamine is produced in various parts of the brain: the striatum, substantia nigra, ventral tegmental area, pituitary gland and pathways of the hypothalamus. Dopamine receptors are located primarily in the central nervous system and less prominently in the kidney and vascular system. The type of dopamine receptor determines its function, but overall these receptors are responsible for:<\/p>\n\n\n\n
\n- Cognition\u2014learning, decision-making and attention<\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Memory<\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Impulse control<\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Locomotion<\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Sleep<\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Renal function via renin secretion<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n\n\n
Maintaining a balanced dopamine level contributes to our overall health and well-being. Dopamine-deficient or oversupplied individuals may experience any of the following symptoms:<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Deficiency<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n\n- Anxiety and mood swings<\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Constipation<\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Hallucinations<\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Loss of balance<\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Low energy<\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Low sex drive<\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Muscle cramps<\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Sleep difficulty<\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Tremors<\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Weight change<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n\n\n
Surplus<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n\n- Aggressive Behaviour<\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Anxiety<\/li>\n\n\n\n
- Stress<\/li>\n<\/ol>\n\n\n\n
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<\/figure>\n<\/div>\n\n\nDopamine deficiency can also lead to Parkinson\u2019s disease and major depressive disorder. A dopamine surplus can cause ADHD, schizophrenia and substance abuse.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Dopamine controls feelings of reinforcement and reward, thoughts and emotions, arousal and regulation of hormones and glands. The function of brain dopamine is \u201cto coordinate cognitive and motor resources for successful exploitation of environmental energy sources.\u201d This goal-directed behaviour <\/strong>supports fundamental body functions and is of crucial importance to our physical and physiological health.<\/p>\n\n\n\nDopamine and blood glucose<\/h2>\n\n\n\n
Although studies have not proved a definitive correlation between dopamine and blood glucose levels, the answer lies with insulin. Insulin, a hormone produced by the pancreas and present in all mammals, controls glucose delivery to cells and regulates metabolism in the human body. Insulin controls carbohydrate, lipid and protein metabolism, providing glucose access to our cells. Together with glucagon, insulin helps maintain a state called homeostasis, an internal equilibrium. Insulin resistance is high in individuals whose cells respond poorly to insulin and have difficulty taking glucose from the bloodstream. The pancreas, therefore, ramps up insulin production to aid in glucose delivery. Over time, people with high insulin resistance develop high blood sugar levels. If you have low insulin resistance, that indicates high insulin sensitivity (beneficial for your health). People who have type 1 diabetes have inadequate insulin production. Chronically elevated insulin levels and decreased brain insulin sensitivity is linked to type 2 diabetes. The interaction between the reward system and the homeostatic system governs our eating patterns and behaviour and can determine our predisposition for conditions such as diabetes. <\/p>\n\n\n\n
The relationship between insulin and dopamine is fraught with contradictory findings. Recently, however, promising developments have been made. <\/p>\n\n\n\n
Researchers at the Institute of Diabetes Research and Metabolic Diseases in Munich examined the interaction of the homeostatic and reward systems in the striatum. They administered insulin via the nose to 10 healthy male participants to discover lower dopamine levels and a change in the brain\u2019s network structure. Participants demonstrated a stronger increase in functional connectivity in the brain for 45 minutes after insulin was administered. The results indicated that insulin modulates dopamine release in the striatum, which affects brain activity and connectivity. The team believes that changes in this network can be a driver of obesity and related diseases.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
In 2018, Dutch doctors chanced upon a potential link between the homeostatic and reward systems while treating a patient with obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). By placing electrodes in his brain, they could stimulate brain tissue involved in decision making, motivation and reward-seeking. Deep brain stimulation (DBS) caused him to get rid of one of his prescription medications. It also improved his type 2 diabetes\u2014his insulin sensitivity improved as he reduced his dosage from 226 to 180 units of insulin per day. Researchers believe that DBS increased dopamine activity, which raised his insulin sensitivity.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
At the Academic Medical Center in Amsterdam, endocrinologist Mireille Serlie conducted several experiments to explain the underlying reason behind this improvement. She first recruited the same patient (above, with electrodes) with fourteen other individuals, all non-diabetic. Serlie found that administering DBS increased insulin sensitivity in all subjects. Additionally, Serlie administered a dopamine-depleting drug to 10 healthy males to find that their insulin sensitivity decreased across the board. This finding further reinforced the connection between dopamine and glucose regulation. Her team also activated neurons in the striatum of mice. As these cells released more dopamine, the rate of glucose uptake from other cells increased. She concluded that the striatum plays a pivotal role in regulating glucose metabolism throughout the body.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Dr Alex Reeves, neurologist and former neurology professor at Dartmouth medical school, is not convinced. \u201cDopamine is just one of many things within the body that can have this effect on insulin resistance.\u201d He continues, \u201cYou need neurotransmitters in their minimal quantity to function.\u201d In the long term, excess dopamine can thus have the opposite effect and reduce insulin sensitivity. Reeves argues that prescribing dopamine-boosting pharmaceutical drugs such as bromocriptine overlooks the underlying reason for insulin resistance in the first place.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
Nima Saedi, assistant professor of surgery at Harvard Medical School, Boston advises caution, \u201c. . .the results the authors described here are not translatable to diabetic patients.\u201d<\/p>\n\n\n\n
DBS may be unrealistic for most patients with diabetes, but the uncovering of this pathway has opened the door for less invasive brain therapies to target dopamine in the future.<\/p>\n\n\n\n
How sugars hijack the brain reward system<\/h2>\n\n\n\n
When we are hungry, ghrelin (a hunger hormone) is released to heighten reactivity within food-related reward centres of the brain, especially in the striatum. As you begin your meal, the first few bites taste like heaven. However, your food gets progressively less appealing. The stomach and gut begin to release leptin, an appetite-reducing hormone that slowly diminishes the pleasure of consuming your meal. <\/p>\n\n\n
Recent studies have shown a promising link between nervous system functioning and blood sugar. We present the latest findings to you here; first, the basics of dopamine, followed by its interaction with serum glucose. <\/p>\n\n\n\n
What is dopamine?<\/h2>\n\n\n\n
Dopamine is a neurotransmitter, or chemical messenger, responsible for several key functions in the central nervous system. Conventionally, it is known as the \u2018feel-good\u2019 or \u2018pleasure\u2019 chemical even though it does not produce <\/em>pleasure. Instead, dopamine connects feelings of pleasure, gratification and reward with certain behaviours by controlling the brain\u2019s reward centres and pathways.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Dopamine is produced in various parts of the brain: the striatum, substantia nigra, ventral tegmental area, pituitary gland and pathways of the hypothalamus. Dopamine receptors are located primarily in the central nervous system and less prominently in the kidney and vascular system. The type of dopamine receptor determines its function, but overall these receptors are responsible for:<\/p>\n\n\n\n Maintaining a balanced dopamine level contributes to our overall health and well-being. Dopamine-deficient or oversupplied individuals may experience any of the following symptoms:<\/p>\n\n\n\n Deficiency<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n Surplus<\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n Dopamine deficiency can also lead to Parkinson\u2019s disease and major depressive disorder. A dopamine surplus can cause ADHD, schizophrenia and substance abuse.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Dopamine controls feelings of reinforcement and reward, thoughts and emotions, arousal and regulation of hormones and glands. The function of brain dopamine is \u201cto coordinate cognitive and motor resources for successful exploitation of environmental energy sources.\u201d This goal-directed behaviour <\/strong>supports fundamental body functions and is of crucial importance to our physical and physiological health.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Although studies have not proved a definitive correlation between dopamine and blood glucose levels, the answer lies with insulin. Insulin, a hormone produced by the pancreas and present in all mammals, controls glucose delivery to cells and regulates metabolism in the human body. Insulin controls carbohydrate, lipid and protein metabolism, providing glucose access to our cells. Together with glucagon, insulin helps maintain a state called homeostasis, an internal equilibrium. Insulin resistance is high in individuals whose cells respond poorly to insulin and have difficulty taking glucose from the bloodstream. The pancreas, therefore, ramps up insulin production to aid in glucose delivery. Over time, people with high insulin resistance develop high blood sugar levels. If you have low insulin resistance, that indicates high insulin sensitivity (beneficial for your health). People who have type 1 diabetes have inadequate insulin production. Chronically elevated insulin levels and decreased brain insulin sensitivity is linked to type 2 diabetes. The interaction between the reward system and the homeostatic system governs our eating patterns and behaviour and can determine our predisposition for conditions such as diabetes. <\/p>\n\n\n\n The relationship between insulin and dopamine is fraught with contradictory findings. Recently, however, promising developments have been made. <\/p>\n\n\n\n Researchers at the Institute of Diabetes Research and Metabolic Diseases in Munich examined the interaction of the homeostatic and reward systems in the striatum. They administered insulin via the nose to 10 healthy male participants to discover lower dopamine levels and a change in the brain\u2019s network structure. Participants demonstrated a stronger increase in functional connectivity in the brain for 45 minutes after insulin was administered. The results indicated that insulin modulates dopamine release in the striatum, which affects brain activity and connectivity. The team believes that changes in this network can be a driver of obesity and related diseases.<\/p>\n\n\n\n In 2018, Dutch doctors chanced upon a potential link between the homeostatic and reward systems while treating a patient with obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). By placing electrodes in his brain, they could stimulate brain tissue involved in decision making, motivation and reward-seeking. Deep brain stimulation (DBS) caused him to get rid of one of his prescription medications. It also improved his type 2 diabetes\u2014his insulin sensitivity improved as he reduced his dosage from 226 to 180 units of insulin per day. Researchers believe that DBS increased dopamine activity, which raised his insulin sensitivity.<\/p>\n\n\n\n At the Academic Medical Center in Amsterdam, endocrinologist Mireille Serlie conducted several experiments to explain the underlying reason behind this improvement. She first recruited the same patient (above, with electrodes) with fourteen other individuals, all non-diabetic. Serlie found that administering DBS increased insulin sensitivity in all subjects. Additionally, Serlie administered a dopamine-depleting drug to 10 healthy males to find that their insulin sensitivity decreased across the board. This finding further reinforced the connection between dopamine and glucose regulation. Her team also activated neurons in the striatum of mice. As these cells released more dopamine, the rate of glucose uptake from other cells increased. She concluded that the striatum plays a pivotal role in regulating glucose metabolism throughout the body.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Dr Alex Reeves, neurologist and former neurology professor at Dartmouth medical school, is not convinced. \u201cDopamine is just one of many things within the body that can have this effect on insulin resistance.\u201d He continues, \u201cYou need neurotransmitters in their minimal quantity to function.\u201d In the long term, excess dopamine can thus have the opposite effect and reduce insulin sensitivity. Reeves argues that prescribing dopamine-boosting pharmaceutical drugs such as bromocriptine overlooks the underlying reason for insulin resistance in the first place.<\/p>\n\n\n\n Nima Saedi, assistant professor of surgery at Harvard Medical School, Boston advises caution, \u201c. . .the results the authors described here are not translatable to diabetic patients.\u201d<\/p>\n\n\n\n DBS may be unrealistic for most patients with diabetes, but the uncovering of this pathway has opened the door for less invasive brain therapies to target dopamine in the future.<\/p>\n\n\n\n When we are hungry, ghrelin (a hunger hormone) is released to heighten reactivity within food-related reward centres of the brain, especially in the striatum. As you begin your meal, the first few bites taste like heaven. However, your food gets progressively less appealing. The stomach and gut begin to release leptin, an appetite-reducing hormone that slowly diminishes the pleasure of consuming your meal. <\/p>\n\n\n \n
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<\/figure>\n<\/div>\n\n\nDopamine and blood glucose<\/h2>\n\n\n\n
How sugars hijack the brain reward system<\/h2>\n\n\n\n
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